Hypnosis, Meditation, Psychoactive Drugs, and Substance Use

1. Hypnosis and Suggestibility

Hypnosis is a state of focused attention, reduced peripheral awareness, and increased responsiveness to suggestion. A central feature is suggestibility, the tendency to accept and act on another person's suggestions. Two theories compete to explain it. Social-cognitive theory holds that hypnotized people are not in a special state but are simply behaving according to their expectations and the social role of "being hypnotized." Dissociation theory instead proposes that hypnosis involves a genuine split in consciousness, in which part of the mind carries out suggestions while another part observes. Most psychologists see elements of both at work.

2. Meditation and Mindfulness

Meditation is a set of practices that train attention to produce a calm, focused, or altered state. Mindfulness is a related quality of nonjudgmental awareness of the present moment. Both can lower physiological arousal and are increasingly studied as supports for well-being; they are practices, not treatments, and are not a substitute for professional care when needed.

3. Psychoactive Drugs, Dependence, and Substance Use Disorder

Psychoactive drugs are chemicals that cross into the brain and alter perception, mood, or behavior. Depressants (such as alcohol and benzodiazepines) slow central nervous system activity. Stimulants (such as caffeine, nicotine, and amphetamines) increase activity and alertness. Opioids (such as morphine, heroin, and prescription pain relievers) reduce pain and can produce euphoria. Hallucinogens (such as LSD and psilocybin) distort perception and can induce vivid sensory experiences. With repeated use, tolerance develops—the need for larger doses to achieve the same effect—and withdrawal, a set of unpleasant symptoms when use stops. Dependence can be physical (the body has adapted to the drug) and/or psychological (emotional craving). Substance use disorder is the clinical pattern in which drug use continues despite significant problems, and it ranges in severity; reinforcement—the rewarding effect of the drug—helps explain why use is repeated.

How it works

1. A person enters hypnosis through focused attention and suggestions, becoming more suggestible.
2. Two theories—social-cognitive and dissociation—offer different explanations for what happens next.
3. Meditation and mindfulness train attention deliberately, changing arousal without drugs.
4. Psychoactive drugs enter the brain and shift activity up (stimulants), down (depressants), or distort it (hallucinogens), or reduce pain (opioids).
5. With repeated use, tolerance and withdrawal can lead to dependence and, when problems persist, substance use disorder.
6. Harm reduction and stigma-free language help people reduce risk and seek support.

Common confusions

Memory aids

Use "DOSH" for the four drug classes: Depressants, Opioids, Stimulants, Hallucinogens. For dependence, remember "TWoD"—Tolerance and Withdrawal build Dependence. And for the hypnosis debate, "SoDi"—Social-cognitive versus Dissociation.

Quick review

Topic Recap

Altered states of consciousness include hypnosis—explained by social-cognitive and dissociation theories—and meditation, a deliberate attention practice linked to mindfulness. Psychoactive drugs fall into four classes: depressants, stimulants, opioids, and hallucinogens. Repeated use can produce tolerance and withdrawal, leading to physical and/or psychological dependence and, when problems persist, substance use disorder. Reinforcement explains why use repeats, while harm reduction and stigma-free language guide compassionate, effective responses.

Knowledge Check

1. Name the two competing theories of hypnosis.
2. Which drug class slows central nervous system activity?
3. Distinguish tolerance from withdrawal.
4. Distinguish physical dependence from psychological dependence.
5. Why is "person with a substance use disorder" preferred over stigmatizing labels such as "addict"?

Answers and Rationales

1. Social-cognitive theory and dissociation theory. One explains hypnosis as role and expectation; the other as a genuine split in consciousness.
2. Depressants, which include alcohol and benzodiazepines.
3. Tolerance is needing a larger dose for the same effect; withdrawal is the set of unpleasant symptoms when the drug is stopped. They are related but distinct signs of adaptation.
4. Physical dependence is bodily adaptation to a drug; psychological dependence is emotional craving. Both can occur together or separately.
5. Person-first language separates the person from the condition, reduces shame, and encourages help-seeking. It treats substance use disorder as a health condition, not an identity or a moral failing.